George Washington

Who Was George Washington?

George Washington was a prominent Virginia plantation owner who played a crucial role in the founding of the United States. He served as a general and the commander-in-chief of the colonial armies during the American Revolutionary War and later became the first president of the United States, holding office from 1789 to 1797.

Early Life and Family

Born on February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Washington was the eldest of Augustine and Mary Washington’s six children, all of whom survived into adulthood. The family resided at Pope’s Creek, where they were moderately prosperous members of Virginia’s “middling class.”

Washington could trace his ancestry in North America to his great-grandfather, John Washington, who migrated from England to Virginia. The family had some distinction in England, having been granted land by Henry VIII. However, much of their wealth was lost during the Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell. In 1657, Washington’s grandfather, Lawrence Washington, also migrated to Virginia, but details about the family in North America remain sparse until the birth of Washington’s father, Augustine, in 1694.

Augustine Washington was an ambitious individual who acquired land, enslaved people, established mills, and cultivated tobacco. He even expressed interest in opening iron mines. After the death of his first wife, Jane Butler, in 1729, he married Mary Ball in 1731, with whom he had six children.

Mount Vernon

In 1735, Augustine Washington relocated the family to Little Hunting Creek Plantation, later renamed Mount Vernon, situated along the Potomac River. In 1738, they moved again to Ferry Farm, located on the Rappahannock River, across from Fredericksburg, Virginia. It was here that George Washington spent much of his youth, shaping the experiences that would later influence his leadership and character.

Childhood and Education

George Washington’s childhood remains largely undocumented, leading to the creation of various legends by later biographers. Among these myths are the popular tales of Washington throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac and confessing to chopping down his father’s prized cherry tree.

From the ages of seven to 15, Washington was educated at home, initially by the local church sexton and subsequently by a schoolmaster. His studies included practical mathematics, geography, Latin, and the English classics. However, much of the practical knowledge that he would utilize throughout his life came from his interactions with woodsmen and the plantation foreman. By his early teens, he had acquired skills in tobacco cultivation, livestock management, and surveying.

After the death of his father when he was 11, Washington became the ward of his half-brother Lawrence, who provided him with a solid upbringing. Lawrence inherited the family’s Little Hunting Creek Plantation and married Anne Fairfax, the daughter of Colonel William Fairfax, a prominent figure in Virginia’s gentry. Under Anne’s guidance, Washington was introduced to the finer aspects of colonial culture.

At the age of 16, Washington joined a surveying party tasked with mapping land in Virginia’s western territories. The following year, with the assistance of Lord Fairfax, he was appointed as the official surveyor of Culpeper County. For two years, Washington dedicated himself to surveying lands in Culpeper, Frederick, and Augusta counties. This experience not only honed his resourcefulness but also built his physical and mental resilience. It sparked his lifelong interest in western land holdings, which he pursued through speculative purchases, believing firmly in the nation’s future expansion westward.

In July 1752, the death of his brother Lawrence from tuberculosis made Washington the heir to the Washington estate. Shortly thereafter, the passing of Lawrence’s only child, Sarah, left Washington as the head of one of Virginia’s most prominent estates, Mount Vernon, at the young age of 20. Throughout his life, Washington held farming in high esteem and took great pride in Mount Vernon, ultimately expanding his landholdings there to approximately 8,000 acres.

Pre-Revolutionary Military Career

In the early 1750s, France and Britain were at peace; however, the French military began to occupy much of the Ohio Valley, safeguarding the King’s interests, particularly for fur trappers and French settlers. The borders in this area were ambiguous and prone to disputes between the two nations. Following Lawrence’s death, Washington exhibited early leadership qualities, leading Virginia’s Lieutenant Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, to appoint him as adjutant with the rank of major in the Virginia militia.

French and Indian War

On October 31, 1753, Dinwiddie dispatched Washington to Fort LeBoeuf, now Waterford, Pennsylvania, to demand the withdrawal of French forces from British-claimed territory. The French declined his request, prompting Washington to make a swift return to Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia.

Dinwiddie then sent Washington back with troops, establishing a post at Great Meadows. Washington’s small force engaged a French outpost at Fort Duquesne, resulting in the death of French commander Coulon de Jumonville and nine others, with several prisoners taken. This confrontation marked the beginning of the French and Indian War.

In response, the French launched a counterattack, forcing Washington and his men to retreat to Great Meadows, which would later be called “Fort Necessity.” After a day-long siege, Washington surrendered and was subsequently released, returning to Williamsburg with a promise not to establish another fort along the Ohio River. Despite the setback, he received commendations from the House of Burgesses and gained recognition in London gazettes.

Washington was promoted to the honorary rank of colonel and joined British General Edward Braddock’s forces in Virginia in 1755. The British planned a coordinated assault on French forces at Fort Duquesne, Fort Niagara, and Crown Point. During the encounter, the French and their Native American allies ambushed Braddock’s troops, resulting in his mortal wounding. Washington narrowly escaped injury, despite having four bullet holes in his cloak and two horses shot out from beneath him. Although he fought valiantly, he could do little to halt the ensuing rout and ultimately led the defeated army back to safety.

Commander of Virginia Troops

In August 1755, George Washington was appointed commander of all Virginia troops at the age of 23. He was tasked with patrolling and protecting nearly 400 miles of the frontier, leading a contingent of about 700 poorly disciplined colonial troops amid a lack of support from the Virginia colonial legislature. This assignment proved to be a frustrating challenge. Washington’s health deteriorated during the latter months of 1757, leading to his dismissal from service due to dysentery.

In 1758, he returned to active duty for another expedition aimed at capturing Fort Duquesne. During this campaign, a tragic friendly-fire incident resulted in the deaths of 14 and injuries to 26 of Washington’s men. Nonetheless, the British ultimately achieved a significant victory by capturing Fort Duquesne and gaining control of the Ohio Valley. Washington resigned his commission in December 1758, reflecting on a generally disheartening experience characterized by slow decision-making, inadequate support from the colonial government, and poorly trained recruits. Following a failed application for a commission in the British army, he returned to Mount Vernon disillusioned and subsequently entered politics, winning election to Virginia’s House of Burgesses.

Martha Washington

Just a month after leaving military service, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow only a few months his senior. Martha brought with her considerable wealth, including an 18,000-acre estate, from which Washington personally acquired 6,000 acres. This inheritance, combined with land granted to him for his military service, positioned Washington as one of Virginia’s more affluent landowners. The marriage also introduced Martha’s two young children, John (Jacky) and Martha (Patsy), aged six and four, respectively, into Washington’s life. He developed a deep affection for them, particularly grieving the loss of Patsy just before the Revolution and Jacky during the conflict. Washington subsequently adopted two of Jacky’s children.

Enslaved People

During his retirement from the Virginia militia and leading up to the American Revolution, Washington focused on managing his land holdings, overseeing crop rotation, livestock, and agricultural innovations. By the 1790s, he owned over 300 enslaved individuals at Mount Vernon. While he reportedly harbored a dislike for the institution of slavery, he accepted its legality. In his will, Washington expressed his discontent with slavery, mandating that all his enslaved individuals be freed upon Martha’s death. However, this provision applied to fewer than half of those enslaved at Mount Vernon, as those owned by the Custis family were bequeathed to Martha’s grandchildren after her passing.

Washington enjoyed the life of the landed gentry, engaging in horseback riding, fox hunting, fishing, and attending cotillions. He was known for his strong work ethic, often working six days a week and participating in manual labor alongside his workers. As an innovative and responsible landowner, he bred cattle and horses and maintained fruit orchards.

Teeth

Much attention has been paid to Washington’s dental issues, as he wore false teeth or dentures for most of his adult life. His correspondence frequently references toothaches, inflamed gums, and various dental ailments. Washington had one tooth extracted at the age of 24, and by the time he was inaugurated in 1789, he had only one natural tooth remaining. Contrary to popular belief, his dentures were not made of wood; they were constructed from a combination of human teeth (including those of enslaved individuals), ivory, animal teeth, and various metals. Some historians suggest that Washington’s dental problems may have influenced the shape of his face and contributed to his often somber demeanor, as he spoke only once during the Constitutional Convention.

American Revolution

While Washington was irritated by the British Proclamation Act of 1763, which restricted settlement beyond the Alleghenies, and opposed the Stamp Act of 1765, he did not take a prominent role in the colonial resistance until the protests against the Townshend Acts in 1767. His letters from this period reveal that he was initially against declaring independence. However, by 1767, he had shifted his stance to oppose what he perceived as fundamental violations of English rights by the Crown.

In 1769, Washington introduced a resolution in the House of Burgesses advocating for a boycott of British goods until the Townshend Acts were repealed. Following the Coercive Acts in 1774, he chaired a meeting that resulted in the Fairfax Resolves, which called for the Continental Congress to convene and considered armed resistance as a last resort. He was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in March 1775.

Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army

The political dispute between Great Britain and its North American colonies escalated into armed conflict following the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. In May, Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in military uniform, signaling his readiness for war. On June 15, he was appointed Major General and Commander-in-Chief of the colonial forces against Great Britain. Washington did not actively seek this position, but he faced no significant competition.

His selection was due to multiple factors, including his military experience, charisma, and the political necessity of Virginia’s support for the revolution, especially as New England had borne the brunt of British oppression. Although Washington lacked formal training in large-scale warfare, his courage, determination, and strategic foresight proved invaluable.

In March 1776, Washington’s forces achieved an early victory by positioning artillery on Dorchester Heights, compelling the British to withdraw from Boston. However, as he relocated his troops to New York City, a new British commander, Sir William Howe, arrived with the largest expeditionary force Britain had ever sent.

Crossing the Delaware

In August 1776, the British launched a significant assault, capturing New York City in the war’s largest battle. Washington’s army suffered a setback, with the surrender of 2,800 men. He ordered a retreat across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. General Howe, confident the war would soon conclude, wintered his troops in Trenton and Princeton, allowing Washington the opportunity to strike at his discretion.

On Christmas night 1776, Washington led a surprise attack against Hessian mercenaries in Trenton, forcing their surrender. Shortly thereafter, he launched another successful offensive at Princeton, dealing the British a humiliating defeat.

Victories and Losses

General Howe’s strategy focused on capturing key colonial cities to suppress the rebellion. Despite Washington’s attempts to defend Philadelphia, his forces were defeated at the Battle of Brandywine, leading to the city’s fall two weeks later.

In late summer 1777, British General John Burgoyne launched an offensive from Quebec towards Saratoga, aiming to split the colonies. However, he became trapped by American forces under Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold, resulting in the surrender of his entire 6,200-man army. This pivotal victory encouraged France to openly ally with the American cause for independence.

Throughout these challenges, Washington learned the significance of the political dimension of war. He recognized that sustaining the resistance was as crucial as achieving military victories. The American populace began to believe in their potential for independence without needing to defeat the British army directly, while General Howe remained fixated on the fall of colonial cities as the key to quelling the rebellion. Unbeknownst to him, capturing cities like Philadelphia and New York would not dismantle colonial governance; Congress could simply convene elsewhere.

Valley Forge: A Crucial Turning Point

The winter of 1777 marked a significant and dark chapter for General George Washington and the Continental Army at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. During this harsh winter, the army of approximately 11,000 men endured severe hardships, resulting in thousands of deaths, primarily due to disease. Despite these challenges, the army emerged from the winter intact and in relatively good order.

Recognizing that their strategy of capturing colonial cities had failed, British commanders replaced General Howe with Sir Henry Clinton. Subsequently, the British forces evacuated Philadelphia to return to New York City. Washington seized the opportunity to engage the moving British army, launching several successful attacks on their flanks near Monmouth Courthouse. Although the encounter ended in a tactical stalemate, it demonstrated Washington’s army’s capability for open-field battle.

For the duration of the war, Washington focused on containing British forces within New York, although he never entirely relinquished the idea of retaking the city. The alliance with France was pivotal, bringing a substantial French army and naval fleet to support the colonial cause.

In a strategic shift, Washington and his French counterparts decided to target British General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. With the combined French and Continental forces, along with a fleet of 29 warships, Cornwallis held out until October 19, 1781, when he surrendered.

Revolutionary War Victory

Washington had no way of knowing that the victory at Yorktown would ultimately lead to the conclusion of the Revolutionary War. Despite the defeat of Cornwallis, the British still maintained 26,000 troops in New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, accompanied by a formidable fleet. By 1782, the French forces had departed, the Continental treasury was nearly depleted, and many of Washington’s soldiers had not been compensated for years.

To avert a near-mutiny, Washington successfully urged Congress to grant a five-year bonus to soldiers in March 1783. By November of that year, the British had evacuated New York City and other strongholds, effectively ending hostilities. After four years of conflict, Washington aspired to return to his life as a gentleman farmer and restore his Mount Vernon plantation. The war had strained the Washington family’s resources, resulting in neglected lands and diminished exports, compounded by the depreciation of paper currency. Nevertheless, Washington managed to recover his fortunes through a generous land grant from Congress for his military service, enabling him to regain financial stability.

Constitutional Convention

In 1787, Washington was called to duty once more. The nascent republic was struggling under the Articles of Confederation, a governmental framework that concentrated power at the state level. Disunity among the states led to conflicts over boundaries, navigation rights, and an unwillingness to contribute to the national debt. Some state legislatures imposed burdensome tax policies on their citizens.

Dismayed by this state of affairs, Washington initially hesitated to advocate for significant changes, possibly due to concerns about the timing so soon after the Revolution. However, the outbreak of Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts underscored the urgent need for reform. In 1786, Congress authorized a convention in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation.

At the Constitutional Convention, Washington was unanimously elected president. Alongside influential figures like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, he concluded that a complete overhaul, rather than mere amendments, was necessary. The Convention ultimately produced a framework for government that addressed contemporary issues while remaining resilient over time. Washington’s reputation and support for the new Constitution were instrumental in its ratification, despite vigorous opposition from prominent political figures like Patrick Henry and Sam Adams.

George Washington: Presidency

Despite his desire to retire to Mount Vernon, Washington was again called to serve his country. In the presidential election of 1789, he received a unanimous vote from the Electoral College, becoming the only president in American history elected by unanimous consent. He took the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City, the nation’s capital at that time.

As the first president, Washington understood the importance of setting a precedent for future administrations. He carefully navigated his responsibilities, consciously avoiding the appearance of a European royal court. Preferring the title “Mr. President” over more regal titles, he aimed to establish a sense of accessibility in his office.

Initially, Washington declined the $25,000 salary offered by Congress, seeking to protect his image as a selfless public servant. However, Congress persuaded him to accept the salary to prevent the impression that only wealthy individuals could serve as president. Washington proved to be an adept administrator, surrounding himself with capable advisors, including Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. He wisely delegated authority and regularly consulted his cabinet, valuing their advice before making decisions.

Establishing broad presidential authority, Washington exercised power with integrity and restraint, setting a high standard for his successors.

Accomplishments

During his first term, Washington implemented a series of measures proposed by Treasury Secretary Hamilton to reduce national debt and stabilize finances. His administration also established several peace treaties with Native American tribes and approved a bill that designated a permanent capital along the Potomac River.

In 1791, Washington signed a bill imposing a tax on distilled spirits, which ignited protests in rural Pennsylvania. This discontent escalated into the Whiskey Rebellion, prompting Washington to invoke the Militia Act of 1792. He personally led the troops into the affected areas, demonstrating that the federal government would enforce the law when necessary—a unique instance of a sitting president commanding troops in battle.

Jay Treaty

In foreign affairs, Washington adopted a cautious stance, recognizing that the fledgling nation could not afford to become embroiled in European conflicts. In 1793, when war broke out between France and Great Britain, Washington, influenced by Hamilton, opted for neutrality rather than honoring the U.S. alliance with France. He sent John Jay to negotiate a treaty with Britain (the “Jay Treaty”) to secure peace and resolve outstanding issues from the Revolutionary War.

This decision angered Jefferson, who believed the U.S. should honor its treaty obligations to France. Nonetheless, Washington successfully rallied public support for the treaty, which was pivotal in securing Senate ratification. Although controversial, the treaty benefited the United States by removing British forts from the western frontier, establishing clear borders with Canada, and delaying war with Britain, allowing for a decade of vital trade and economic development.

Political Parties

Throughout his presidency, Washington was troubled by the rise of partisanship within the government and the nation. The power granted to the federal government by the Constitution led to significant decisions, prompting factions to form around influential figures. Treasury Secretary Hamilton advocated for a robust national government and an industrial economy, while Secretary of State Jefferson favored a smaller government centered on agricultural interests.

Supporters of Hamilton became known as Federalists, while those aligned with Jefferson identified as Democratic-Republicans. Washington detested political partisanship, believing that ideological differences should not institutionalize divisions. He felt that political leaders should engage in debates without the constraints of party loyalty.

However, Washington’s efforts to curtail the development of political parties were largely unsuccessful. The conflicting ideologies promoted by Hamilton and Jefferson solidified a two-party system that has endured, reflecting an ongoing debate over the proper role of government.

Washington faced criticism for perceived extravagance during his presidency, as he rented prestigious residences and traveled in a lavishly adorned coach. After experiencing overwhelming demand for his time, he announced that, aside from weekly public receptions, he would only meet individuals by appointment. While he hosted elaborate private dinners and receptions, he was careful to avoid the appearance of monarchical behavior.

At public events, Washington dressed in a black velvet suit with gold buckles, adhering to contemporary norms rather than military garb. His reserved demeanor stemmed more from personal reticence than an excessive sense of dignity.

Retirement

Desiring a return to Mount Vernon and recognizing the toll of age on his health, Washington declined to seek a third term, despite the likelihood of facing no opposition. This decision reflected his commitment to establishing a peaceful transition of government.

Farewell Address

In the final months of his presidency, Washington felt compelled to share his thoughts with the nation. Collaborating with Hamilton, he crafted his Farewell Address, urging citizens to cherish the Union and avoid partisanship and permanent foreign alliances.

In March 1797, Washington transferred power to John Adams and returned to Mount Vernon, determined to lead a life as a gentleman farmer. His last official act was to pardon those involved in the Whiskey Rebellion.

Upon his return to Mount Vernon in the spring of 1797, Washington felt a profound sense of relief and accomplishment. He had left the government in capable hands, ensured its stability, and set the nation on a path toward prosperity. He devoted much of his time to managing the farm, although his landholdings proved only marginally profitable.

Death

On a cold December day in 1799, Washington spent much of the day inspecting his farm despite adverse weather. After returning home, he hastily consumed dinner in his damp clothing and went to bed. The following morning, he awoke with a severe sore throat and progressively lost his voice. He retired early but woke around 3 a.m., informing Martha of his deteriorating condition. His illness escalated until he passed away late on December 14, 1799.

News of Washington’s death at age 67 reverberated throughout the nation, plunging the country into deep mourning. Cities and towns held mock funerals and delivered numerous eulogies to honor their fallen leader. The news reached Europe, prompting the British fleet to pay tribute, while Napoleon declared ten days of mourning.

Legacy

Washington had the potential to be a king but chose instead to be a citizen and servant of his country. He established numerous precedents for the national government and the presidency, including the two-term limit later codified in the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution.

He crystallized the presidency’s role within the government’s three branches, exercising authority judiciously while respecting the checks and balances inherent in the Constitution. His efforts were instrumental in laying the foundation for a national identity, influencing generations of leaders. Today, he is celebrated as a symbol of freedom, liberty, and democracy, and the nation continues to honor his legacy.