Rosa Parks

Who Was Rosa Parks?

Rosa Parks, born in February 1913, was a pivotal figure in the American civil rights movement. Her courageous decision to refuse to surrender her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in December 1955, sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a significant event in the struggle against racial segregation. Parks’ actions not only galvanized local activism but also inspired a nationwide movement aimed at dismantling segregation in public transportation and other areas of society.

Throughout her life, Parks received numerous accolades for her contributions to civil rights, including the Martin Luther King Jr. Award from the NAACP, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Congressional Gold Medal. Often referred to as the “Mother of the Civil Rights Movement,” she remains a symbol of resilience and courage in the face of injustice. Rosa Parks passed away in October 2005 at the age of 92, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire generations in the fight for equality and justice.

Childhood, Family, and Education

Rosa Louise McCauley, known as Rosa Parks, was born on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama. Her early life was marked by familial upheaval, as her parents, James and Leona McCauley, separated when she was just two years old. Following the separation, her mother relocated the family to Pine Level, Alabama, to live with her parents, Rose and Sylvester Edwards. Both of Rosa’s grandparents had formerly been enslaved and were strong advocates for racial equality, instilling these values in their family.

Rosa spent her formative years on the Edwards family farm, where she faced health challenges, including chronic tonsillitis that often left her bedridden. After undergoing a tonsillectomy in fifth grade, she experienced temporary blindness; however, her health improved shortly thereafter, as documented in Rosa Parks: A Life in American History by Darryl Mace.

From an early age, Rosa was exposed to the harsh realities of racial discrimination, which sparked her activism. One notable incident involved her grandfather, Sylvester, who bravely stood guard with a shotgun in front of their home as members of the Ku Klux Klan marched down their street. This atmosphere of oppression fueled Rosa’s determination to fight back against bullying from white children, as she stated, “As far back as I remember, I could never think in terms of accepting physical abuse without some form of retaliation if possible,” a sentiment captured in The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks by Jeanne Theoharis.

Rosa’s educational journey took place within segregated schools, often characterized by inadequate resources. The one-room schoolhouse in Pine Level, which she attended, lacked essential supplies like desks. In contrast, Black students had to walk to school, while white students enjoyed bus transportation and newly constructed school facilities.

At the age of 11, Rosa enrolled at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, Alabama. She later attended a laboratory school for secondary education associated with the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes. In 1929, Rosa left school in the 11th grade to assist her sick grandmother and mother in Pine Level. During this period, she worked at a shirt factory in Montgomery. Nevertheless, she persevered and eventually earned her high school diploma in 1933, a notable achievement for a young Black woman during the mid-1930s when approximately 80% of Black children in southern states were not enrolled in secondary education, as highlighted in Rosa Parks: A Biography by Joyce A. Hanson.

Husband

In 1932, at the age of 19, Rosa Parks met and married Raymond Parks, a barber who was actively involved with the NAACP and the League of Women Voters. The couple remained childless throughout their marriage, which lasted until Raymond’s passing in 1977.

Raymond was deeply engaged in the Montgomery labor rights movement and played a crucial role in leading a national pledge drive to support the legal defense of the Scottsboro Boys, a group of nine Black teenagers wrongfully accused of raping two white women in Alabama in 1931. As Rosa’s interest in civil activism grew, Raymond expressed concerns about her involvement in the Scottsboro Boys defense efforts, citing the dangers associated with such activism. Rosa recounted that her husband believed, “It was hard enough if he had to run… He couldn’t leave me, and I couldn’t run as fast,” as noted in The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks. Despite his concerns, Rosa remained undeterred.

With Raymond’s support, Rosa graduated from high school and became actively involved in civil rights issues by joining the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP in 1943. She served as the youth leader and also held the position of secretary to NAACP President E.D. Nixon until 1957.

During her tenure at the NAACP, Rosa was instrumental in investigating the gang rape of Recy Taylor, a Black woman in Henry County, Alabama. She also participated in meetings addressing the murder of Emmett Till, a Black teenager who was tortured and lynched in Mississippi in 1955 after being accused of offending a white woman.

Arrest

On December 1, 1955, after a long day’s work as a seamstress at a Montgomery department store, Rosa Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus to return home. She took a seat in the first of several rows designated for “colored” passengers.

The Montgomery City Code mandated segregation on public transportation, empowering bus drivers with the authority of city police to enforce these provisions. Drivers were responsible for ensuring separate but equal accommodations for white and Black passengers, which included assigning seats. A line was drawn roughly down the middle of the bus, separating white passengers in the front from Black passengers in the back. When an African American passenger boarded, they were required to enter through the front to pay their fare, then exit and reboard at the back.

As the bus continued its route, it filled with white passengers. Eventually, the bus became crowded, prompting driver James F. Blake to notice that several white passengers were standing in the aisle. He halted the bus, moved the sign separating the two sections back one row, and instructed four Black passengers to relinquish their seats. Although the city’s bus ordinance did not explicitly grant drivers the authority to demand that a passenger give up their seat, a custom had developed where drivers would shift the segregation line and compel Black passengers to vacate their seats for white passengers. Noncompliance could lead to refusal of service or police intervention.

Three of the Black passengers complied with Blake’s request, but Parks resolutely refused to stand. When Blake demanded, “Why don’t you stand up?” Parks replied, “I don’t think I should have to stand up.” Subsequently, Blake called the police, who arrested her at the scene, charging her with violating Chapter 6, Section 11, of the Montgomery City Code. Parks later described the incident, stating, “When that white driver stepped back toward us, when he waved his hand and ordered us up and out of our seats, I felt a determination cover my body like a quilt on a winter night.” She was taken to police headquarters and released later that night on bail.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

The arrest of Rosa Parks on December 1, 1955, catalyzed what would come to be known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, with Parks becoming its public face. In response to her arrest, E.D. Nixon, a prominent civil rights activist, swiftly began organizing a boycott of Montgomery’s city buses. The Black community was urged to abstain from using the buses on December 5, 1955—the day of Parks’ trial. Community members were encouraged to stay home from work or school, utilize alternative transportation such as taxis, or walk to their destinations. Local newspapers carried advertisements, and handbills were distributed throughout Black neighborhoods to spread the word.

Notably, Parks was not the first individual to resist segregated bus policies. Nine months prior, 15-year-old Claudette Colvin, a nurse’s aide and activist, had similarly refused to give up her seat to a white passenger. However, the NAACP deemed Parks a more suitable figure for public engagement, largely due to societal perceptions surrounding her appearance and background. Colvin later reflected that her status as a pregnant teenager and Parks’ lighter complexion played a role in the lack of media attention on her actions.

On the morning of the boycott, a gathering of Black community leaders convened at Mt. Zion Church in Montgomery to strategize. Recognizing the need for organized leadership, they established the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), electing the relatively new pastor Martin Luther King Jr. as its leader. The MIA identified Parks’ case as a pivotal moment to instigate further change.

When Parks arrived at the courthouse accompanied by her attorney, Fred Gray, she was met by a supportive crowd of approximately 500 local residents. After a brief hearing, Parks was found guilty of violating a local ordinance and fined $10, in addition to a $4 court fee.

However, the most significant outcome of the day was the boycott itself. The majority of Montgomery’s public buses remained largely empty, as approximately 40,000 African American commuters opted to walk to work, with some journeying as far as 20 miles.

The boycott’s momentum persisted for several months, resulting in financial strain on the city’s transit system as buses sat idle. In the face of this success, however, the effort encountered severe opposition. Segregationists responded with violence, targeting Black churches and the homes of key figures such as King and Nixon. Additionally, they sought to undermine the boycott by canceling insurance for the taxi services that the Black community relied upon and enforcing antiquated laws against boycotts.

In retaliation, the Black community pursued legal action. Leveraging the landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which deemed separate but equal policies unconstitutional, a legal team filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Alabama. Parks’ attorney, Fred Gray, was instrumental in this effort.

On June 5, 1956, the district court ruled that racial segregation laws, commonly referred to as Jim Crow laws, were unconstitutional. The city of Montgomery appealed this ruling, but on November 13, 1956, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the district court’s decision, affirming that segregation on public transport violated constitutional principles.

Faced with financial losses in the transit sector and unfavorable legal judgments, the city of Montgomery ultimately lifted its enforcement of segregation on public buses. The boycott concluded on December 20, 1956, after 381 days of sustained protest. The Montgomery Bus Boycott stands as one of the most significant and effective mass movements against racial segregation in history, demonstrating the power of legal action combined with the unwavering resolve of the Black community.

Life After the Bus Boycott

In the aftermath of her arrest in Montgomery and the subsequent bus boycott, Rosa Parks, despite becoming a pivotal symbol of the Civil Rights Movement, faced significant hardships. She lost her position at a department store, and her husband, Raymond Parks, was dismissed from his job as a barber at Maxwell Air Force Base after being prohibited from discussing either his wife or their ongoing legal case. This period was marked by a barrage of death threats against the couple, prompting Raymond to take to sleeping with a firearm for protection, as noted in The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks.

Struggling to find employment, the Parks family ultimately relocated to Detroit, where they moved in with Rosa’s mother. In Detroit, Parks forged a new path, working as a secretary and receptionist in the congressional office of U.S. Representative John Conyers. She also became an active board member of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Throughout her life, Parks remained deeply engaged in activism, advocating against housing discrimination and police brutality. She developed a friendship with Malcolm X, whom she regarded as her “personal hero.”

In 1987, following her husband’s death a decade earlier, Parks co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development with her longtime friend Elaine Eason Steele. This organization initiated the “Pathways to Freedom” bus tours, aimed at educating young people about significant civil rights and Underground Railroad sites across the nation.

Parks further contributed to her legacy through her writings. In 1992, she released Rosa Parks: My Story, an autobiography detailing her experiences in the segregated South. Three years later, she published Quiet Strength, which emphasizes the integral role that religious faith played throughout her life.

Outkast Song Controversy

In 1998, the influential hip-hop group Outkast released the song “Rosa Parks,” which subsequently peaked at No. 55 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1999. The song’s chorus contained the line, “Ah-ha, hush that fuss. Everybody move to the back of the bus,” which directly referenced the civil rights icon.

In 1999, Rosa Parks filed a lawsuit against Outkast and its record label, alleging defamation and false advertising due to the unauthorized use of her name. Outkast defended the song, asserting that it was protected under the First Amendment and did not infringe upon Parks’ publicity rights. In 2003, a judge dismissed the defamation claims; however, Parks’ legal team refiled the lawsuit, focusing on the false advertising claims and seeking over $5 billion in damages.

On April 14, 2005, the case was settled. Although Outkast and the co-defendants—SONY BMG Music Entertainment, Arista Records LLC, and LaFace Records—admitted no wrongdoing, they agreed to collaborate with the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute to develop educational programs aimed at enlightening young people about Rosa Parks’ significant contributions to civil rights in America.

Death of Rosa Parks

Rosa Parks passed away on October 24, 2005, in her apartment in Detroit at the age of 92. She had been diagnosed with progressive dementia the previous year, having shown symptoms since at least 2002. Her death was commemorated with several memorial services, including a historic lying in honor at the U.S. Capitol Rotunda, where approximately 50,000 individuals paid their respects. Parks became the first woman and only the second Black person, following U.S. Capitol police officer Jacob Joseph Chestnut, to lie in the Capitol, a site designated for the nation’s most distinguished citizens.

In recognition of her legacy, city officials in Montgomery and Detroit reserved the front seats of public buses adorned with black ribbons in her honor. Parks was interred between her husband and mother at Woodlawn Cemetery in Detroit, where the chapel was later renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel. During her funeral, then–Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice remarked, “I can honestly say that without Mrs. Parks, I probably would not be standing here today as Secretary of State,” underscoring Parks’ profound impact on American history and civil rights.

Awards, Tributes, and Film

Rosa Parks received numerous accolades throughout her lifetime, reflecting her significant impact on civil rights and social justice. Among her honors were the Spingarn Medal, the highest award bestowed by the NAACP, and the esteemed Martin Luther King Jr. Award. On September 15, 1996, President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor granted by the United States executive branch. The following year, she received the Congressional Gold Medal, the most prestigious recognition from the U.S. legislative branch. In 1999, Time magazine named Parks one of “The 20 Most Influential People of the 20th Century.”

In 2000, Troy University established the Rosa Parks Museum at the location of her arrest in downtown Montgomery, Alabama, serving as a testament to her enduring legacy. In 2001, Grand Rapids, Michigan, honored Parks by dedicating Rosa Parks Circle, a 3.5-acre park designed by architect Maya Lin, renowned for her design of the Vietnam War Memorial in Washington, D.C.

A biographical film titled The Rosa Parks Story, starring Angela Bassett and directed by Julie Dash, premiered in 2002. This film garnered several accolades, including the NAACP Image Award, the Christopher Award, and the Black Reel Award in 2003.

To commemorate what would have been Parks’ 100th birthday on February 4, 2013, the U.S. Postal Service released the Rosa Parks Forever stamp, featuring a portrayal of the iconic activist. On the same day, President Barack Obama unveiled a statue honoring Parks in the Capitol building. Designed by Robert Firmin and sculpted by Eugene Daub, the statue serves as a permanent tribute to her legacy. During the dedication ceremony, Obama remarked, “In a single moment, with the simplest of gestures, she helped change America and change the world. And today, she takes her rightful place among those who shaped this nation’s course.”