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Who Was Malcolm X?
Malcolm X was a prominent minister, civil rights activist, and Black nationalist leader, best known for his role as a spokesman for the Nation of Islam during the 1950s and 1960s. His powerful advocacy for Black empowerment and social justice helped propel the Nation of Islam from a small organization of 400 members upon his release from prison in 1952, to 40,000 members by 1960. Renowned for his exceptional oratory skills, Malcolm X became a fiery advocate for racial equality, often calling for self-defense and the end of systemic racism “by any means necessary,” including through violence if required.
His relationship with the Nation of Islam soured in the years leading up to his assassination in 1965, when he broke with the group. Malcolm X was tragically killed while preparing to deliver a speech at the Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan at the age of 39. His legacy as a courageous leader and outspoken critic of racial injustice continues to resonate today.
Early Life and Family
Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska. He was the fourth of eight children to Louise, a homemaker, and Earl Little, a preacher who was an active member of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and a staunch supporter of Black nationalist leader Marcus Garvey.
Due to Earl Little’s civil rights activism, the family faced constant harassment from white supremacist groups, including the Ku Klux Klan and a splinter group, the Black Legion. Malcolm X often recounted an early encounter with racism when, as a fetus, his mother was threatened by hooded Ku Klux Klan riders who arrived at their home, demanding that Earl come outside. The harassment escalated over time, and at the age of four, Malcolm witnessed local Klan members smashing the windows of their home.
To escape this constant danger, the family relocated in 1926 from Omaha to Milwaukee, and then in 1928 to Lansing, Michigan. However, the family’s struggles with racism only intensified in Lansing. In 1929, a white mob set their house on fire, and local white police and firemen stood by without intervening as the home burned to the ground. Earl Little rebuilt the family’s home in East Lansing, but the relentless racism continued to take its toll.
In 1931, Earl Little’s body was found across the municipal streetcar tracks, and although the family believed he had been murdered by white supremacists, the police dismissed the death as a streetcar accident. His passing deprived the family of financial security, as the life insurance policy Earl had taken out to protect his family was voided by the accident ruling.
The loss of her husband left Louise Little devastated, leading to her eventual commitment to a mental institution in 1937, where she would remain for the next 26 years. Malcolm and his siblings were placed into foster care, further fracturing the family during their formative years.
Education and Early Life
Malcolm X’s early life was marked by both hardship and achievement. In 1938, he was expelled from West Junior High School and sent to a juvenile detention home in Mason, Michigan. The white couple who ran the home treated him kindly, but in his autobiography, Malcolm X described feeling dehumanized, likening his treatment to that of a “pink poodle” or a “pet canary” rather than a human being.
Afterward, he attended Mason High School, where he was one of the few Black students. Despite the challenges of being in the racial minority, he excelled academically and earned the respect of his peers, who elected him class president. A pivotal moment in Malcolm’s educational journey occurred in 1939 when his English teacher asked him about his career aspirations. When Malcolm expressed a desire to become a lawyer, his teacher dismissed the idea, telling him to consider a more “realistic” profession, such as carpentry. Discouraged by this response, Malcolm dropped out of school at the age of 15.
Early Adulthood and Criminal Life
Following his departure from school, Malcolm moved to Boston to live with his older half-sister, Ella. He recalled her as the first Black woman he had seen who was truly proud of her dark skin, a sentiment that was rare at the time. Ella helped Malcolm secure a job shining shoes at the Roseland Ballroom. However, life in Boston introduced him to the city’s criminal underworld, and he soon became involved in drug dealing.
Malcolm took a job as a kitchen helper on the Yankee Clipper train, traveling between New York and Boston. As he immersed himself further into a life of crime, he adopted the flashy style of the time, wearing pinstriped zoot suits and frequenting nightclubs. His criminal activities increased as he sought to support his lavish lifestyle.
Imprisonment and Transformation
In 1946, Malcolm was arrested for larceny and sentenced to 10 years in prison. During his time behind bars, he sought to educate himself by reading extensively from the prison library, attempting to make up for the educational opportunities he had missed. It was also during this period that several of his siblings, who had joined the Nation of Islam, visited him and introduced him to the movement’s ideology.
Malcolm embraced the teachings of the Nation of Islam, adopting the name “Malcolm X” to symbolize his lost African heritage. He converted to the Nation of Islam and, after serving six and a half years, was released from prison in 1952.
Nation of Islam and Leadership
Upon his release, Malcolm X moved to Detroit and began working closely with Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, to expand the movement. He became the minister of several temples, including Temple No. 7 in Harlem and Temple No. 11 in Boston, and helped establish new temples in Hartford and Philadelphia. In 1960, Malcolm launched a national newspaper, Muhammad Speaks, to further promote the message of the Nation of Islam.
A charismatic and powerful orator, Malcolm X passionately advocated for Black self-determination, often stating that Black Americans should secure freedom and equality “by any means necessary,” including violence. He famously argued that “you don’t have a peaceful revolution. You don’t have a turn-the-cheek revolution,” emphasizing the need for direct action in the struggle for justice.
Under Malcolm X’s leadership, the Nation of Islam grew dramatically, from 400 members in 1952 to 40,000 by 1960. His fierce commitment to Black nationalism and his militant rhetoric earned him both a large following and a great deal of criticism.
Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr.
By the early 1960s, Malcolm X had become a prominent voice of the more radical faction of the Civil Rights Movement, offering a stark contrast to Martin Luther King Jr.’s vision of a racially integrated society achieved through nonviolent means. While King critiqued Malcolm’s methods, he refrained from directly confronting his more militant counterpart. Despite their differing approaches, both leaders shared the goal of racial equality, though their paths diverged significantly. The two men, aware of each other’s work, met only once—a brief encounter on Capitol Hill during a U.S. Senate hearing on an anti-discrimination bill.
Becoming a Mainstream Sunni Muslim
Malcolm X’s split with Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, was a profound turning point in his life. In 1963, Malcolm’s disillusionment deepened when he learned of Muhammad’s personal transgressions, including numerous extramarital affairs and fathering children out of wedlock. This personal betrayal, coupled with Muhammad’s displeasure over Malcolm’s comments regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, led Malcolm to leave the Nation of Islam in 1964.
That same year, Malcolm embarked on a transformative journey to North Africa and the Middle East. This trip not only broadened his political perspective but also helped him place the Civil Rights Movement within the context of a global anti-colonial struggle. He embraced socialism and pan-Africanism and, during a pilgrimage to Mecca, converted to traditional Sunni Islam. He also changed his name to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, symbolizing his spiritual and ideological evolution. Upon returning to the United States, Malcolm X expressed newfound optimism about the potential for peaceful racial reconciliation in America. He famously remarked, “The true brotherhood I had seen had influenced me to recognize that anger can blind human vision.”
Assassination
Just as Malcolm X seemed poised to shift his approach and potentially influence the future direction of the Civil Rights Movement, he was tragically assassinated. On February 21, 1965, while preparing to deliver a speech at the Audubon Ballroom in Manhattan, Malcolm X was fatally shot by several assailants. He was struck multiple times and declared dead shortly after arriving at a nearby hospital at the age of 39. Three members of the Nation of Islam were convicted for the murder, though in 2021, two of the men—Muhammad Aziz and Khalil Islam—were exonerated after decades of imprisonment. Both men had consistently maintained their innocence. Aziz and Islam, who were wrongfully convicted in 1966, received a $36 million settlement in recognition of their wrongful imprisonment.
In February 2023, Malcolm X’s family filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the New York Police Department, the FBI, the CIA, and other government entities, alleging that they had concealed evidence and conspired in his assassination.
Wife and Children
Malcolm X married Betty Shabazz in 1958, and together they had six daughters: Attilah, Quiblah, Lamumbah, Ilyasah, Malaak, and Malikah. The twins, Malaak and Malikah, were born posthumously, after Malcolm’s death in 1965.
“The Autobiography of Malcolm X”
In the early 1960s, Malcolm X collaborated with journalist Alex Haley on his autobiography, which traces his transformation from a criminal to a national leader and sheds light on his evolving views on race, Black nationalism, and pan-Africanism. The book, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, was published in 1965, shortly after his assassination, and received widespread acclaim. The New York Times called it a “brilliant, painful, important book,” and Time magazine included it among the ten most influential nonfiction works of the 20th century.
Movies
Malcolm X has been depicted in numerous films, plays, and other media. Notably, the 1992 film Malcolm X, directed by Spike Lee and starring Denzel Washington, garnered significant critical praise. Washington’s portrayal of Malcolm X earned him multiple award nominations, including two Academy Award nominations.
Legacy
In the years following his death, Malcolm X was often viewed by the media as a divisive and violent figure. However, the publication of his autobiography helped to shift public perception. He is now remembered not only for his role in advocating for Black empowerment and self-determination but also for his call for uncompromising action in the pursuit of justice. As he powerfully stated, “Power in defense of freedom is greater than power in behalf of tyranny and oppression, because power, real power, comes from our conviction which produces action, uncompromising action.” His legacy continues to inspire those who fight for racial equality and human rights around the world.